A Recap of The Most Notable Concepts and Lessons I Learned From AP Psychology Class
By Amirali Banani
4 Pivotal Concepts I Learned
Neurotransmission: At its core, neurotransmission refers to the intricate process by which neurons communicate with each other. This communication occurs through the release, diffusion, reception, and binding of neurotransmitters. Neurons are specialized cells that transmit information through electrical signals, and when these signals reach the end of one neuron, they trigger the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse, the small gap between neurons. These neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the neighbouring neuron, transmitting the signal forward. Neurotransmission underlies virtually all aspects of behaviour, cognition, and emotion. It impacts everything from our ability to move our muscles to the regulation of mood and memory. Moreover, imbalances in neurotransmitter levels have been linked to various psychological disorders, underscoring the critical importance of this concept in understanding the biological basis of psychological phenomena.
Classical Conditioning: Classical Conditioning is a foundational principle prominently featured in the Learning unit of AP Psychology. It was first studied by the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov. This concept revolves around the idea of associative learning, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response. In Pavlov’s famous experiment, dogs were conditioned to associate the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) with the presentation of food (unconditioned stimulus). Eventually, the bell alone could elicit the same salivary response (conditioned response) that the food would. This process of pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to evoke a response highlights the malleability of behaviour through learned associations. Classical Conditioning is integral in explaining how behaviours are acquired and modified through repeated experiences and associations.
Cognitive Dissonance: Cognitive Dissonance is a pivotal concept in the realm of Social Psychology. Proposed by psychologist Leon Festinger, this theory posits that individuals experience psychological discomfort when they hold conflicting beliefs and attitudes or engage in behaviours that contradict their self-concept. In response to this discomfort, individuals are motivated to reduce the dissonance by either changing their beliefs, attitudes, or behaviours. For example, if someone is aware of the health risks associated with smoking (cognition 1) but continues to smoke (cognition 2), they might experience cognitive dissonance. To alleviate this discomfort, they may either quit smoking or rationalize their behaviour by downplaying the risks. Cognitive Dissonance theory sheds light on the complex ways people strive for consistency in their thoughts and actions and provides insights into attitude change, persuasion, and decision-making processes.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a profound framework that intersects the units of Motivation and Emotion. Proposed by psychologist Abraham Maslow, this hierarchical model categorizes human needs into five levels, arranged in a pyramid structure. At the base are physiological needs like food, water, and shelter, followed by safety needs, social belongingness needs, esteem needs, and finally, self-actualization needs at the pinnacle. The theory suggests that individuals must satisfy lower-level needs before progressing to higher ones. This concept illuminates the multifaceted factors that drive human behaviour and motivation. It underscores how individuals seek to fulfill basic survival needs before striving for personal growth and self-fulfillment, emphasizing the dynamic interplay between innate drives and psychological development.
The Most Provocative Readings I Came Across
1. Parenting Styles: Parenting styles are the strategies and approaches that parents use to raise and interact with their children. Psychologist Diana Baumrind identified four main parenting styles based on two dimensions: responsiveness (warmth and supportiveness) and demandingness (expectations and discipline).
Authoritative: Authoritative parents are nurturing and responsive while maintaining reasonable expectations and boundaries. They encourage open communication, provide guidance, and value their children’s autonomy. This style often leads to well-adjusted and socially competent children who are confident and self-reliant. This is the gold standard of all parenting styles.
Authoritarian: Authoritarian parents are strict and demanding, emphasizing obedience and discipline. They prioritize rules and control over warmth, often using punishment to enforce compliance. Children raised under authoritarian parenting might have lower self-esteem and struggle with decision-making throughout their lives.
Permissive: Permissive parents are lenient and indulgent, allowing their children considerable freedom. They are nurturing but may avoid setting clear boundaries. Children raised in permissive environments might lack self-discipline and have difficulty with structure. They often end up doing things that get them in trouble and become spoiled (not appreciating the value of stuff in life).
Uninvolved/Neglectful: Uninvolved parents are emotionally distant and provide little guidance or support. They may have various reasons for their lack of involvement, leading to children who struggle with self-esteem, attachment issues, and self-regulation. Children of neglectful parents often grow up feeling unloved and neglected, which significantly impedes their relationships in the future and tragically, may even lead them to commit suicide.
2. Milgram Experiment: The Milgram Experiment, conducted by Stanley Milgram in the 1960s, aimed to understand the extent of human obedience to authority figures. Participants were instructed to administer increasing electric shocks to a learner (who was actually an actor) whenever they answered questions incorrectly. Despite the learner’s apparent pain, many participants continued to administer shocks simply because they were told to do so.
The impact of the Milgram Experiment lies in its revelation of the potential for ordinary individuals to engage in harmful actions under the influence of authority. It raises ethical concerns about the well-being of participants in psychological studies and prompts discussions about the balance between experimental design and the welfare of participants. This experiment also highlights the complexity of human behaviour and the potential for situational factors to override individual morality.
3. Bystander Effect: The bystander effect refers to the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help in an emergency when others are present. This diffusion of responsibility occurs because people assume that someone else will intervene. The concept gained prominence following the tragic case of Kitty Genovese, who was murdered in 1964 while numerous witnesses reportedly did not intervene.
The bystander effect’s impact lies in its exploration of the psychological mechanisms that inhibit prosocial behaviour. It raises questions about the role of social influence, diffusion of responsibility, and the barriers to taking action in critical situations. The Kitty Genovese case serves as a poignant example that encourages discussions about the factors influencing bystander behaviour and the importance of promoting a sense of responsibility and empathy in society.
These three concepts offer profound insights into human behaviour, social dynamics, and the interplay between individual and situational factors. They are crucial topics in the field of psychology that continue to shape our understanding of how people interact and respond in various situations. Having read about the three psychological concepts, I came to appreciate how often they can be applied to real-world situations and began to further understand just how much our psychology impacts us and ultimately the world around us.
The Take-Home Messages From These Readings
Parenting Styles: The key takeaway from the exploration of parenting styles is that an authoritative parenting approach, characterized by warmth, reasonable expectations, and open communication, tends to foster well-adjusted, confident, and self-reliant children. Conversely, authoritarian, permissive, or neglectful parenting styles can lead to negative outcomes, including low self-esteem, poor decision-making, and emotional issues in children. This underscores the significant impact parents have on their children’s development and highlights the importance of a balanced and supportive parenting style.
Milgram Experiment: The Milgram Experiment’s main message is the unsettling revelation that under the influence of authority figures, ordinary individuals can engage in harmful actions against their moral judgment. This experiment serves as a stark reminder of the potential for obedience to override individual ethics, raising ethical concerns about the design and ethics of psychological studies. It emphasizes the need to critically evaluate the balance between scientific inquiry and the well-being of research participants.
Bystander Effect: The bystander effect teaches us that the presence of others can lead to a diffusion of responsibility, making individuals less likely to offer help in emergencies. This phenomenon highlights the importance of promoting a sense of individual responsibility and empathy in society to overcome barriers to prosocial behaviour. The tragic case of Kitty Genovese serves as a poignant example, emphasizing the need to encourage bystander intervention and challenge the assumptions that others will take action.
These concepts collectively underscore the intricate interplay between individual traits and situational factors in shaping human behaviour. Whether in parenting styles, obedience to authority, or bystander behaviour, individual characteristics and the context in which they operate have a profound impact. Understanding this interplay is crucial for psychology and society, as it highlights the complexity of human behaviour and the potential for both positive and negative outcomes based on these interactions.
Two Significant In-Class Learning Experiences
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Learning about Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in AP Psychology class was a pivotal moment that resonated with me on a personal level. This framework not only illuminated the intricacies of human motivation but also sparked introspection into my own life and aspirations. As I delved into the hierarchy, I found myself reflecting on the times when I was focused on meeting basic physiological needs and the security of a stable environment. Recognizing the transition to seeking belongingness, esteem, and personal growth, I began to understand the profound impact of these needs on my decisions and actions.
In contemplating my journey toward self-actualization, I realized that recognizing and nurturing my own passions, strengths, and potential is an ongoing process. This insight has empowered me to approach challenges and goals with a more holistic perspective, ensuring that my personal development isn’t confined to just one level of the hierarchy. The concept has become a guiding principle in my pursuit of authenticity and fulfillment, reminding me that addressing different layers of needs is essential for a balanced and meaningful life journey.
2. Analogy between flushing toilet and action potential: One of the best learning experiences that I had all year was learning about the concept of an action potential with the simple analogy of flushing a toilet. Mr. Bohnen took us upstairs to the staff washroom and had us watch him flush the toilet.
At first, we were a bit confused, but then we started to draw connections between this simple task that we do a few times a day to the complex task of synaptic transmission that our billions of neurons perform trillions of times a day.
It’s very straightforward. The flushing of the toilet is analogous to the depolarization stage of an action potential in which sodium ions enter the neuronal axon through voltage-gated sodium channels, climaxing in a peak action potential. This can be observed by the force of the water swishing through the void of the toilet. The water slowly resurfacing represents the repolarization stage of an action potential, in which potassium ions are pumped out of the neuronal axon through voltage-gated potassium channels and the action potential subsides.
Immediately following repolarization is the refractory period. This is most likely the point where you find out why this act of flushing the toilet is such a fantastic analogy for an action potential. During the refractory period, the neuron can not fire again (i.e. an action potential can not be initiated regardless of the strength of any stimulus that is applied to the neuron) as the sodium and potassium ions are reconfiguring themselves into their original positions.
Similarly, if you try to push the handle of the toilet immediately after the first, you’ll notice that the toilet does not release more water, which is analogous to when a neuron can not respond to a second impulse and achieve another action potential. The refractory period of the neuron must complete, just as you must wait a few moments for the toilet to finish refilling with water until you can flush it again.
This analogy helped me understand the concept of an action potential and the mechanics behind it a lot better, even to the point that I visualized it whenever a question came up on an exam about the action potential to help me answer it correctly.
AP Psychology is by far the best AP course I have taken, and I highly recommend every high school student to enroll in it if they have the opportunity to. Believe me, it significantly changes your perspective on how we humans think, behave, and interact with the world.